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The Black Panthers at 60: A through line of resistance from the South to California

Two members of the Black Panther Party are met on the steps of the State Capitol in Sacramento, May 2, 1967, by Police Lt. Ernest Holloway, who informs them they will be allowed to keep their weapons as long as they cause no trouble and do not disturb the peace. Photo via Getty Images

In this episode of Rattling the Bars, host Mansa Musa interviews archivist, photographer, and veteran Black Panther Party member Billy X Jennings.

Joining the Party at age 17 after relocating from Hobson City, Alabama, to Oakland, Jennings managed BPP offices and served as bodyguard to Huey P. Newton. During Bobby Seale’s 1973 Oakland mayoral run, Jennings helped spearhead an unprecedented electoral effort: “…an organizing event on the highest level the parties had ever been. I mean, the party is known for organizing, but to go into electoral politics and do what we did for a first time basis, it changed over. Even though Bobby lost that election, it changed openly because it opened up so many doors. Part of his job was to kick down doors because we were the Vanguard.”

Today, Jennings operates the official Black Panther Party Alumni website and leads political education initiatives across the Bay Area for the Party’s 60th Anniversary.

Related links:

Credits:

  • Production/Post-production: Cameron Granadino
Transcript

The following is a rushed transcript and may contain errors. It will be updated.

Mansa Musa:

Welcome to the edition of Rattling the Bars. I’m your host, Mansa Musa. This year marks the 60th anniversary of the founding of the Black Panther Party, which started in Oakland in 1966. Today, I’m honored to be joined by Billy Jennings, AKA Billy X, well-known archivist in Oakland, member of the Black Panther Party, a photographer who runs the official Black Panther Party alumni website called It’s About Time. Thank you for joining me, Billy.

Billy X Jennings:

Hey, thanks for having me again. Good morning to everyone.

Mansa Musa:

And as we talked earlier, I was in different spaces and hoping I had met you while I was in Oakland. So this would more or less be like a reunion, but this is my first time meeting you. I’m really honored. I heard a lot about you. I know a lot about your work, and it’s an honor to be able to interview you about the party and some of the things and some of your experiences.

Billy X Jennings:

Okay.

Mansa Musa:

Please introduce yourself to our audience, who you are and how you came to be involved in the Black Panther Party.

Billy X Jennings:

Well, my name is Billy X. Jennings. I’m a member of the Black Panther Party. I joined in 1968 when I was 17 years old. And I came about joining the party because I’m from a historical town in Alabama in the South where most original members came from the South and migrated to California. So I came from a place called Hopson City, Alabama. And the tradition there, Hobson City have had the right to vote since 1890. And we were one of the only black municipal cities, little towns that could vote and had that right to do that. And so I came from a very strong area that had embedded that kind of thought into my mind. And when I traveled to California and I saw the Black Panther Party on TV for the first time in 1967 when they went to Sacramento, California, it blew my mind.

I was in high school at the time and I immediately changed our social… We had a social club called the Buccaneers. I changed it to the Panthers the next day. I didn’t know anything about the party with just that symbolism and how they stood up to the police and read their demands and so forth. It made a change happen in me. And it wasn’t until I graduated from high school, I decided to move to Oakland. And when I moved to Oakland, it was during the time that Huey knew the trial had just started and I was going to a college that’s two blocks away from where Huey was going on trial at the courthouse. And when the trial started, we would hear them saying Free Huey off the preg, free Huey. And I went over there one day and I was reading a book simultaneously at the same time called The Audible Malcolm X.

So what I read, I had read in the book already, but I heard Bobby Steele speak at a rally for Huey and they were saying the same thing. So it got me really interested in the party. And so I started going to the rallies to Free Huey. I met some Panthers and then they said their Panther office was going to open in my area. And when it did, I went down and joined, became a Panther in training and I’ve been working with the party ever since.

Mansa Musa:

Okay. And take us back to the party’s founding because you came in two years after its founding. And also you came in to your own observation and to what we know to be a fact, you came in at a point where they had just started to become on the radar of the feds, but more importantly, they was definitely on the radar of the Oakland police, LA police. And so talk about what was it like to be able to be in that space and ultimately find yourself in a position to be the bodyguard for Huey Newton once he got out.

Billy X Jennings:

Well, my process started at the very beginning. In 1968, there was a certain method the party employed. Before you became a Panther, you had to become a Panther in training, which requires six to eight week training. They give you a list of books that has about 35 different books, about books by Franc Fanon, Mao Saintong, Che Guevara, Pruma, and other revolutionaries to read. And you had to attend political education class on a weekly basis. Panthers at that time was required to read two hours a day. A Panther had to secure and have what we call technical equipment. Technical equipment was a firearm of some type, because at that time I joined the Black Panther Party, it was called Black Panther Party for self-defense. Later on, we dropped off the self-defense, but at that particular time, the party was engaged into patrolling

Police officers in the community, observing them and making sure they don’t beat and brutalize people. So the first six weeks is reading and studying and learning the rules of the Black Panther Party. And then you’re given a section. The city is divided into different sections. I worked in the section four in East Oakland. Section four had a section leader. They had a geographical area that they were responsible for. And so I was in section four. At that very beginning when I first started, we were theorizing about the breakfast program. It hadn’t came about, but we were still looking for geographical locations to have these breakfast programs in the future. So we did that. And every Panther is required to sell the Black Panther Party newspaper, which is the voice of the party. And at that time, the party was growing tremendously by leaps and bounds.

We had people flying into California from Kansas City, Chicago, New York, all to get this education. Before you can open up a chapter of the Black Panther Party or a branch of the Black Panther Party, you have to come to Oakland first and get educated. And you have to meet the leadership. The leadership has to eyeball you and find out your level of consciousness, what type of person you are before you can go back and represent the party. So this whole process was going on. People were flocking to the party. The party got so big that in 1969, we had put a stop on membership and we call that particular part of the party’s history the purge because the party had grown… I mean, the party was attractive. I mean, black coats, leather coats, I mean sunglasses and Afros at the same time. So this was a big thing for our culture.

At the same time, our culture level was rising even in music. James Brown had a record out in 1968 that elevated people’s social conscience, I’m Black and I’m proud. It moved people from the level of being a Negro, because that’s what the newspapers and that other people was referring us to. But in our community, we’re referring to ourselves as Black or African. And when James Brown came out with Black and I’m Proud, you could never go back to ever saying he was a Negro no more. There was different progress being made, but James Brown couldn’t sing no song like that. It wasn’t for groups like the Black Panther Party. Groups like The Shot Light Can’t Sing got to give more power to the

Mansa Musa:

People

Billy X Jennings:

Like the Black Panther Party, paving the way to educate people to lift up their consciousness. And so my role in the party, I came up as a Panther in training. I became a officer of the day, which is the person who runs the office. And from there I was transferred to central headquarters. Now, my name came about because my captain at that time was a legendary Panther called Robert Bay. Robert Bay ran the East Oakland office. Robert Bay was also an age of the central committee. And when Huey Newton got out of jail in 1970, the central committee made Robert Bay his permanent bodyguard and assistant. Now, I worked in that capacity as well after Huey got out of jail, mostly going to… I went to court with Huey on a daily basis because he was let out on appeal. He wasn’t just let out.

He had to go back to court and defend himself. And so my job became that. And also at the same time, I became to the Newton family. Mr. Newton, Mrs. Newton, I lived three or four blocks from them. I would walk over their house around the corner, mow their lawn. I’d be taken to the pharmacy, driving to doctors because they’re old people and they don’t drive so much. So that became my responsibility and me and Huey’s relationship grew behind that. So we had good personal relationship.

I worked central headquarters. Working at central headquarters was key to who I am today because I know Panthers from everywhere because every Panther had to call the central headquarters on a weekly basis or if the office gets ready or they need lawyer resources and stuff like that, I pick up the phone, write on the messages or tell them what they need to know. So I know Panthers from almost all the chapters and branches. And so I worked that group for a while. Then I was drafted into Bobby Seal’s campaign when he ran for mayor of open. I ran Bobby Seal’s campaign office in East Oakland. And it was an organizing event on the highest level the parties had ever been. I mean, the party is known for organizing, but to go into electorial politics and do what we did for a first time basis, it changed over.

Even though Bobby lost that election, it changed openly because it opened up so many doors. Part of his job was to kick down doors because we were the Vanguard. We had lead to struggle and there’s other people who follow behind us. I mean, our life was constantly in threat because we were on the front line, police department, clientele pro, all those things aimed at members of the Black Panther Party. So not only did we have the burden of dealing with the system, we had to deal with the authorities as well.

Mansa Musa:

Talk about, and you’re familiar with Eddie Conway, right? And so Eddie Conway, when he got locked up, he organized a chapter for the Black Panther Party in the prison, which I became a part of. And everything you outlined, as you was talking, I was reflecting on, we had to read at least two albums. We had every aspect of the thing that you outlined as what the party was doing, Eddie had us doing the same thing. We had political education classes, we had military classes, we had first aid classes. All our class was structured around an environment that we was in, and our technic class was finding a hole to get out of prison by any means necessary. So we had that type of mentality. So Billy, as an archivist, you have a lot of distortions in terms of the images that’s being projected of the party and it’s been dubbed Panther Porn, and just to note that it’s images that’s being perpetuated by the federal government, it’s images that’s become more idolization of the party versus the images as an archivist.

What would you say is the most positive or how would you characterize the imagery of the party as from an archivist in terms of educating people and raising their conscience? I see you with a shotgun. I know you in Sacramento. I know why you in Sacramento and I know why you coming out like that. That’s a good thing. But then I turn around, I see somebody standing on the corner. They got a picture of somebody standing on the corner with their mug broke and they got a bandela on and it had nothing to do with organizing, had nothing to do with raising people’s conscience. It’s got more to do with projecting the image of a thug, for lack of a better word. Talk about that if you can.

Billy X Jennings:

Well, the party was vilified on the highest level from the government who lied on us continuously to the media that used disinformation to scare people. The big image they had was, oh, these Negroes, they have guns. They’re angry. They hate white people. That’s their basic pitch on everything. Let it be Republican New Africa or any Black group, they paint them as very threatening group. And because we had guns, I mean, there was nothing… It wasn’t against the law in California to have guns, to have them in public long as they was not loaded, which we knew that. So the images they printed of the Black Panther Party was to vilify us and to scare white people and to frighten Black people. So it was all a part of their method to control who we were. They were trying to identify who we were. We could only define that.

We defined our own selves. And so that’s why we started a Panther newspaper in 1967 to get our voices and views out. So even though we had Time, Newsweek, Life Magazine, the Black Panther Party was cranking out close to 250 to 300,000 copies of papers per week into the community to combat this disinformation about the Black Panther Party. The 10 point program outlines what the Black Panther Party was all about, what we stood for.

Only on one aspect, which is 0.97, we talk about defending ourselves with guns. Other

Than that, we’re talking about social change in all levels, in education, housing and so forth. That was a threat to them because they did not want anyone to rocking the boat and we are rocking the boat. We are waking people up from their deep sleep. I mean, we’re telling people to read. We’re showing people what books to read. We are the Vanguard. People are following us. They didn’t want that. We had people in the white community, they wanted to join in with us. We had people from the Latino community, they want to join with us. You had people from around the world reading the 10 point program and looking at the positive aspect of the Black Panther Party. And that’s how we get the New Zealand Panthers and the Panthers from Africa and Panthers from India and the UK because of our social programs, how we was dealing with the oppressor here.

And so they follow those same examples there. They started social program, they started demanding and fighting for their rights. And that’s what the oppressor hates. They hate for people to wake up. And we were waking up big time in the 60s with the music, the culture, the back to Africa, who we are. How could you be a Negro in 1970 after all has been presented before you? So those things have changed. The party was a part of that change, that

Mansa Musa:

Consciousness. Talk about, because to your point, I remember reading the paper and when United Farm Workers, the party was one of the first papers to one, educate people on what their issues were, two, organize the boycott certain wines that they was taking and exploiting their labor and not giving them equal pay. So talk about the party’s social contribution to raising people’s concept, but more importantly, the elasticity of it, because can you see some of the influences today? Oh,

Billy X Jennings:

Definitely. Definitely. I can see the influences of the Rainbow Coalition. And that was something that Fred Hampton talked about. I could see the coalition building of the Black Panther Party. We’re working with the Brown Beret, the Young Lords, the Young Patriots. We’re working with the welfare rights groups. We’re working with the BSU, the Black Student Unions on campus. We’re working with prison groups. There was a number of prison groups throughout the country that started Black Panther Party off in San Quentin, in Algeria, Raway and other prisons because the ideology of the Black Panther Party was strong. What we were talking about, there was backbone to it. Everything we did was dialectic materialism, right? We were dialectic people. We looked at things from all sides. We just didn’t look at things in one side. Black Panther Party was an international group from the very start. Dewey and Bobby were international.

You can look at our reading list, those 35 books that come from Fanon, that’s from Africa, Mao Zeitang from China. So there was all kind of influences in the party. And so it was a big job just working to educate and organize people on all levels. Because in our community, action speaks. People learn in various ways, but in our community, people relate to action. They see something, they learn from it. Just like the breakfast program. We started the breakfast program in California and within two weeks it was a national program because people said, “Hey, we can do that here. This is how they did it. We can do it here.” The party set examples that people could follow in every aspect. We were on the forefront of fighting racism on all levels.

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“We started the breakfast program in California, and within two weeks it was a national program because people said, 'Hey, we can do that here. This is how they did it. We can do it here.' The party set examples that people could follow in every aspect. We were on the forefront of fighting racism on all levels.”
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How bad does it have to get for the ECB to save France?

French borrowing costs are surging and central bankers are starting to fret. Some of them, at least.

The head of the French central bank, Emmanuel Moulin, told the Financial Times that his country risks being “strangled by interest rates”.

The best solution, he made clear, was for the French government to cut costs and reduce the deficit, which, in an unchanged scenario, could reach upwards of six percent next year.

Last week, the French minority government proposed €43bn worth of cuts for 2027. But pushing them through parliament is a tall order in a divided country.

Meanwhile, investors are dumping French bonds, pushing up French government borrowing costs compared to German benchmark Bunds. This is already immensely costly to French society.

“In three weeks, we’ve lost the equivalent of €15bn a year in higher debt-servicing costs over a 10-year horizon, or almost €100bn cumulatively over 10 years!”, French economist Shahin Vallée said on social media last week.

The gap, or spread, between French and German bond yields, historically around 50 basis points (0.5 percentage points), was 109 basis points when he wrote it on Wednesday. It is now 30 points higher.

Spreads are a crucial marker for financial stability because they show how nervous investors are. The bigger the spread, the higher the perceived risk.

And France’s parabolic bond spread is already bringing back unwelcome memories of the eurozone crisis in November 2011, when the spread reached 200 basis points.

Bypass parliament?

The question is what to do about it, and who is best positioned to act. The French government could bypass a parliamentary vote or push through the budget by ordinance, under articles 49.3 and 47 of the constitution, respectively.

This article continues, but the full version is available only to EUobserver.com subscribers. Visit account.euobserver.com/membership

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Germany accuses Russia of a drone bomb attempt at Leipzig. Now its eight biggest airports get drone detection

The likely process of monitoring the airspace over airports connected to Germany’s new drone detection system. Photo: Deutsche Flugsicherung / Holger Matthies

Germany is expanding drone detection at its airports with a new system operated by German air traffic control provider Deutsche Flugsicherung (DFS), the German Federal Ministry for Transport (BMV) announced on 5 October.

Germany has accused Russia of attempting a hybrid attack at Germany’s Leipzig/Halle Airport near a Ukrainian An-124 aircraft using a drone carrying explosives. Earlier, Finnish President Alexander Stubb said Europe must be prepared for “continued hybrid and sabotage attacks” by Russia, adding that Russia seeks to sow panic through such actions.

On Monday, two more sites were added—Stuttgart and Hamburg. As of Monday, seven of Germany’s eight largest airports were equipped with the new drone detection system in their approach and departure areas.

Germany seeks responses to new hybrid threats

The Federal Ministry cited the reason for the new measure: drones near airports can affect air traffic very quickly.

Federal Transport Minister Steffen Bilger and Baden-Württemberg Transport Minister Nicole Razavi were briefed on the new system at Stuttgart Airport, where it is being put into operation, the ministry said. The system creates “an important technical basis for detecting potential threats at an early stage and quickly informing the competent authorities,” Bilger said.

“With today’s commissioning of the drone detection system at Stuttgart Airport, the federal government is fulfilling a key promise: it is not only talking about the dangers posed by unmanned aircraft, but is also following through with very concrete action. Protecting critical infrastructure and ensuring the safety of passengers at Stuttgart Airport require continuous adaptation to a changing security situation,” Razavi said, according to the ministry.

The new DFS system allows drones near airports to be detected at an early stage and information about possible threats to air traffic to be passed more quickly to the relevant authorities. This helps them assess risks and respond to them more quickly, the statement said.

DFS is responsible for detecting drones in approach and departure areas, while the Federal Police and other security services are responsible for preventing threats and defending against drones. The BMV, Federal Ministry of the Interior, DFS, Federal Police and airports coordinate their work to exchange information quickly and maintain a shared picture of the situation.

No further details about how the system operates have been disclosed.

The first stage of the expansion at Germany’s eight major commercial airports will be fully implemented this week, with the systems in Stuttgart and Hamburg being put into operation, the statement said.

Illustrative image of a Russian drone. Photo: RIA Novosti/Konstantin Mikhalchevsky
Explore further

A drone came down beside a Bundeswehr air base, weeks after Berlin blamed Moscow for the Leipzig airport attack

The system will also be installed at the airport where a bomb-laden drone was found

The system will also be put into operation at Leipzig/Halle Airport this week, meaning that the first stage will be fully implemented at all eight of Germany’s largest commercial airports, according to the press release.

A quadcopter drone carrying a Semtex explosive flew directly toward a parked Ukrainian An-124 Ruslan cargo aircraft and struck its wing at Leipzig/Halle Airport in Germany on the evening of 4 August, Die Zeit reported on 10 August. The drone hit the aircraft at around 19:30 local time, bounced off the wing, and fell to the ground without detonating, according to the media outlet.

Ukrainian An-124 at Leipzig/Halle Airport in Germany, 5 August 2026. Photo: screenshot from Bild video
Ukrainian An-124 at Leipzig/Halle Airport in Germany, 5 August 2026. Photo: screenshot from Bild video

Germany has accused Russia of attempting the drone attack and announced further sanctions against Russian citizens and institutions, Tagesschau reported on 1 September.

At the crime scene, investigators found the drone configuration, explosives and detonation technology that had already appeared in other Russian hybrid operations and in Russia’s war against Ukraine, Federal Interior Minister Alexander Dobrindt said during a joint press conference with Federal Foreign Minister Johann Wadephul, the media outlet reported.

The German government assumes that Germany has been and will be a target of further such Russian attacks. Germany is not at war with Russia but is a “target of war,” Foreign Minister Wadephul said, according to the outlet.

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Why ‘Made in Europe’ could push Burnham’s UK back into the EU’s arms

Having said several months ago that he had no intention of a ‘rerun’ of the Brexit debate, UK prime minister Andy Burnham told Labour delegates at the party’s annual conference in Liverpool last week that nothing should be off the table as far as EU-UK relations are concerned. 

Brexit had “done more harm than good”, he said, adding that “we will not give Britain the clear path we need into the rest of the century until we decide on a long-term relationship with what is still our largest market.” 

In fact, Britain could “go all the way” back into the EU, said Burnham.  

The new prime minister is still enjoying something of a honeymoon period. His Labour party now tops the opinion polls, albeit by less than 30 percent, and his early policy announcements on nationalising utilities and pension reform are the most radical in a generation. 

Even so, Burnham’s remarks were a surprise that left pro-European columnists positively giddy with optimism over the weekend. 

In truth, rejoining the EU – if it happens – would probably take a decade. 

Burnham didn’t offer any timetable or any other specifics, and has said that no moves towards EU membership would be taken before the next UK election due in 2029. And talk of rejoining the EU is not purely borne out of pro-European enthusiasm. 

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Police Lock Down Entire Town to Stop Unrest as Nearly 150 Small-Boat Arrivals Use ‘New Route’ to Land in Gosport

Police have 'locked down' an entire town to stop unrest by setting up a dispersal zone covering the whole of Gosport following protests sparked by the arrival of a migrant boat using a 'new route' from Normandy.

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What the AI boom is actually doing for Americans

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Latvian PM holds onto power as Russia-Ukraine war shapes election

Russia might not have directly interfered in Latvia’s election, but the vote still showed how the Ukraine war was distorting European democracy.

Latvia’s VDD intelligence service did not detect any of Russia’s classic interference tactics in the run-up to Saturday’s (3 October) vote, such as a spike in disinformation, vote buying, or a manufactured security scare.

The centre-right prime minister Andris Kulbergs retained power with 35.8 percent of the vote, even if coalition-building might take a while.

And voters’ concerns included the cost of living and failing healthcare, in what also sounded normal.

But despite the ordinary appearances, Russia’s war in Ukraine still influenced the election in fundamental ways, in a strange new normal for Europe that most of us had hardly imagined just five years ago.

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UK Hands Out More Than 1,000 Free Hijabs to Channel Migrants at Taxpayer Expense

British taxpayers have already paid for nearly 1,000 free hijabs for Channel migrants this year, with the total likely to hit 1,500.

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Widdecombe Murder Suspect Charged With Terror Plot Against Farage

Ann Widdecombe's alleged murderer, Joshua Kerry, has been charged with preparing acts of terrorism against Nigel Farage after "intensive" police investigation.

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Border agents are randomly seizing phones of US citizens who support Palestine

US Customs and Border Protection logo is displayed on the side of a patrol boat on September 25, 2026 in San Diego, CA. Photo by Kevin Carter/Getty Images

This article was originally published by Truthout on Oct. 01, 2026. It is shared here under a  Creative Commons (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license.

Florida lawyer Jalal Shehadeh is convinced that the warrantless seizure of his cell phone by federal agents at the Newark International Airport after he returned from Palestine this September was not random.

Shehadeh, a Miami-based attorney and Palestinian rights advocate, was held for several hours for a secondary inspection and had his phone seized by U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) after he refused to allow federal agents to search it.

“It’s just a wildly invasive thing to do to somebody with no individualized justifiable basis to do it,” Shehadeh told Truthout.

He suspects federal authorities targeted him for his activism. The lawyer is involved in a legal complaint against a federal judge in Florida over the judge’s anti-Palestinian statements.

Shehadeh is one of several Palestinian rights advocates who have been detained and had their personal devices searched by CBP while returning to the U.S. from international travel since the start of Israel’s war on Gaza in October 2023.

Other similar cases include Amir Makled, a lawyer from the Detroit area who was representing University of Michigan students involved in pro-Palestine activism, journalist Max Blumenthal, and Osama Abu Irshaid, the executive director of American Muslims for Palestine (AMP).

Jenin Younes, president of the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee (ADC), which filed a legal motion earlier this week demanding the return of Shehadeh’s phone, said CBP appears to be escalating phone searches against opponents of President Donald Trump’s agenda.

“Common sense tells us that they are targeting people who have pro-Palestine views,” Younes told Truthout.

She stressed that the searches are illegal. The Fourth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution protects “persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures.”

Younes said the “border exception” that allows searches to ensure that no illegal items are brought into the country should not apply to phones.

Younes, a civil liberties attorney, said the authors of the Constitution would have certainly opposed giving the government blanket authority to search people’s phones without cause.

“Law enforcement can search shipping vessels coming into the Boston harbor to make sure that they don’t have contraband. That’s a totally different thing from searching the contents of people’s smartphones,” she said. “I don’t think the framers would have thought that you could read the papers of somebody coming into the country in their suitcase, and likewise, a smartphone, which has so much more personal information.”

The case of Shehadeh and other Palestinian rights supporters targeted for searches at the border has reignited the debate over the application of constitutional protections at ports of entry.

Shehadeh said that when he was stopped at Newark on September 17, CBP officers only conducted a “cursory” search on his bags because they did not appear to be interested in physical items.

“They are looking for our thoughts,” he said. “They’re looking to see what I’m thinking. They want to see who I’m messaging. They want to see what WhatsApp groups I am part of.”

The lawyer, who has Global Entry for expedited border crossing, said he was flagged by name for secondary inspection and led to a waiting room. He was asked general questions about his travels, work, and family before the agents asked to search his phone.

Shehadeh objected to allowing the officers to go through his device, citing the attorney-client privileged information on the phone. The agents kept him waiting and subjected him to another round of questioning as they took the case to a supervisor. As the clock ticked, the Florida-based lawyer missed his connecting flight to Miami.

Eventually, he was informed by an officer that CBP would take his phone and let him go. “I told them, ‘I just want to be very clear. I am not giving you permission, consent to search my phone, and I’m not giving any other arm of this agency or anybody else consent to search my phone,’” he said.

The cell phone still has not been returned.

Shehadeh told Truthout that if the goal of the episode were to deter his activism for Palestinian rights, it would not succeed.

“It will not move our advocacy work an inch. Literally, it will have no impact. If anything, it will fuel the importance of doing more of this work,” he told Truthout. “But when it comes to travel, I’m going to be much more careful about what my phone situation will be.”

The Trump administration has been cracking down on Palestinian rights activism, including through a deportation campaign targeting non-citizen students who participated in protests against the war on Gaza.

Shehadeh warned that the administration is creating a new norm of weakened constitutional rights that many people may take for granted.

“This search is a perfect example of that. Protection against search and seizure is one of those things that comes out of our Constitution that really empowers citizens to know you will not have government intrusion,” he said.

“What this administration is doing is chipping away at the rights of Americans — of all Americans. But sadly, Arabs, Muslims, and minorities tend to be the first victims of these abuses. But they’re certainly not going to be the last ones.”

Abu Irshaid of AMP said the government is turning border crossings into a “hunting ground for individuals it wishes to target” for political retaliation or to gather information about constitutional protected activity.

Abu Irshaid has sued the government, alleging that the repeated searches he has been subjected to at the airport, along with the seizure of his phone, amount to illegal discrimination.

A federal judge ruled in his favor in July, declaring that the government violated Abu Irshaid’s rights with the searches.

Some activists are pinning their hopes on a case before the Supreme Court, Anibowei v. Blanche, that could determine whether the Fourth Amendment applies to the electronic devices of U.S. citizens travelling internationally.

CBP argues that only a tiny fraction of travelers, less than one-half of one percent, are subjected to a device search. But official statistics show an uptick in such searches since Trump returned to the White House.

In 2024, federal officers inspected the devices of 47,047 travelers. The numbers increased to 55,318 last year. Of those inspections, 13,590 targeted U.S. citizens in 2025, compared to 10,541 a year earlier.

In January, CBP released a memorandum outlining its regulations and authorities around searching travelers’ personal devices. The document stressed that people at ports of entry have diminished privacy rights and that phone searches are essential “to identify and combat a wide range of illicit activities.”

A basic search, one where the officer goes through the phone manually, can be conducted “with or without suspicion.”

The bar is higher for carrying out an advanced search, which includes copying and analyzing the content of the phone through an external device. It requires “reasonable suspicion of activity in violation of the laws” enforced by CBP. But there appears to be a loophole. An advanced search can still be conducted “in the absence of individualized reasonable suspicion when there is a national security concern.”

The directive does not provide details on what constitutes a “national security concern” to enable an advanced search.

Officers can only search the device itself and may not access information stored remotely. That’s why they must disable the external connectivity of the phone, according to the memorandum.

The directive gives officers the authority to seize a device and keep it even after the traveler leaves the airport, which is what happened to Shehadeh. According to the memorandum, CBP could effectively keep his phone indefinitely. The agency is allowed to hold on to the device for a period of five days, which can be extended by 15 days and subsequently by seven days in increments without specified limits.

As of Thursday, CBP has kept Shehadeh’s phone for 14 days, meaning the agency has applied at least one extension to its hold on the device.

In response to Truthout’s request for comment, a CBP spokesperson told Truthout that the likelihood of a search at a port of entry “remains exceedingly rare” but did not answer specific questions about Shehadeh’s case, including why the agency is still holding on to his phone.

“U.S. Customs and Border Protection has statutory authority to conduct border searches of electronic devices for all persons entering or departing the United States, regardless of citizenship, to enforce laws addressing terrorism, child exploitation, drug- and human-smuggling, visa fraud, and national security threats,” the CBP spokesperson said.

In the face of the U.S.’s ever-expanding definition of “national security threats,” which now seem to include lawyers, journalists, and activists who have advocated for the rights of Palestinians, are now living in fear that border stops are being used as a form of intimidation.

“What is most disturbing is that many of these aggressive government actions target activists whose only ‘offense’ is criticizing Israel’s violations against Palestinians,” Abu Irshaid told Truthout in a statement.


A Personal Connection

As a reporter, I try to stay out of the stories I am telling. But my personal experience with being stopped and searched after returning to the U.S. from international travel is too relevant for this article to withhold.

After returning to Dulles International Airport outside Washington, D.C. from a trip to Lebanon in February 2025, I was detained for nearly five hours and faced similar treatment as Shehadeh.

CBP officers asked me intrusive questions relating to my work as a journalist and political leanings in my family’s hometown in Lebanon, which had been targeted by Israeli bombardment in the war.

After a brief search of my bags, a CBP officer asked me to hand my phone and unlock it. I initially refused. The federal agent handed me a piece of paper stating that CBP has the lawful ability to search electronic devices. When I highlighted that the flyer reflects CBP policy, not the Constitution, the officer threatened to seize both my phone and computer indefinitely if I didn’t hand the phone in.

CBP took the phone after pressuring me to write down its passcode and kept me waiting for around two hours before handing it back — with a disclaimer that they couldn’t “process” it because the system was down. They eventually let me go. Throughout the hours-long ordeal, the officers did not allow me to contact my family member who was waiting to pick me up at the airport.

I have traveled outside the country twice since then and have been flagged for secondary inspection on the way back each time, albeit without a device search. At the advice of press freedom experts, now I travel internationally with an alternative phone that does not contain sensitive personal or professional information.

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Le gouvernement à l'école de la rue

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Tadeusz Makowski. — Dzieci z pochodniami. — (Des enfants avec des torches / La retraite aux flambeaux), 1928

En 1986, les cortèges étudiants et lycéens avaient contraint le gouvernement de Jacques Chirac à retirer le projet Devaquet. En 2006, les mobilisations de la jeunesse forçaient l'exécutif à abandonner le contrat première embauche. Quelle mesure répondrait aujourd'hui aux revendications lycéennes ? Recruter les professeurs manquants laisserait entière la question de la sélection. Supprimer Parcoursup ne fournirait pas les moyens d'accueillir les étudiants. Rénover les établissements n'abolirait pas l'angoisse d'un futur obscurci par l'IA et le climat. Le mouvement lycéen pointe au fond l'inconséquence générale des politiques menées depuis des décennies : gérer l'instant ; mépriser l'avenir.

Les gouvernements successifs ont installé l'adaptation individuelle comme réponse aux difficultés collectives. Les candidats perfectionnent leurs dossiers et les demandeurs d'emploi accumulent les expériences, tandis que les ressources familiales déterminent leur capacité à patienter ou à partir ailleurs. L'idéologie du mérite rapporte ensuite le résultat aux efforts de chacun.

En réclamant des moyens, les contestataires font exploser le cadre que voudrait imposer le gouvernement : un meilleur dossier ne crée aucune place à l'université ; la motivation ne remplace aucun professeur. Ils rejoignent ainsi les revendications des personnels, dont les conditions de travail déterminent aussi les conditions d'études. Au moment précis où se prépare un budget qui fera la part belle à la défense aux dépens des services publics, une jeunesse souvent décrite comme décérébrée par les réseaux sociaux construit une mobilisation pleinement politique. Et qui reçoit l'appui d'organisations syndicales et de partis expérimentés.

L'exécutif, qui redoute traditionnellement les mobilisations lycéennes, a choisi d'en déléguer la gestion au ministère de l'intérieur. La brutalisation du maintien de l'ordre accompagne une transformation politique plus profonde. Après la deuxième guerre mondiale, l'autorité de l'État s'était consolidée avec les protections accordées au monde du travail et la reconnaissance de sa capacité à négocier. Les dirigeants politiques cherchent désormais la légitimation des investisseurs et de Bruxelles en montrant leur détermination à briser les mobilisations. L'école de la rue leur administrera-t-elle cette fois une cuisante leçon ?

Dans nos archives

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Brutalisation de l'ordre manifestant

À partir du début du XXe siècle, la république a cherché à mieux encadrer les protestations populaires dans la rue en privilégiant l'évitement. Depuis les années 2000, l'approche est plus punitive. La priorité est donnée à l'arrestation des « fauteurs de troubles ». Une évolution qui favorise les violences et pose la question du respect du droit de manifester.

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Mathieu Clément. – « CRS », 2021
© Mathieu Clément

À la tribune du Palais-Bourbon, un député dénonce les violences qu'ont subies quelques jours plus tôt des protestataires, dans une petite ville du nord de la France. La journée a débuté par un regroupement devant une usine. Vers 9 heures, « les gendarmes, sur ordre du lieutenant et sans provocation, ont chargé. Un homme a été blessé, un enfant a eu l'oreille à moitié coupée. La colère de la foule a commencé là et s'est manifestée en effet par des pierres lancées ». Après un moment d'apaisement, la situation se tend à nouveau : « Vers 3 heures [de l'après-midi], de nouvelles bousculades ont lieu et le nombre des manifestants grossit. » Puis la violence se déchaîne : « Les gendarmes frappent de tous côtés. Des femmes, des enfants et des vieillards sont renversés. L'exaspération monte. Un grand nombre de citoyens ripostent aux gendarmes avec des pierres. » Soudain, c'est le drame : « Un grand désordre règne et c'est à ce moment que, sans qu'on sache qui en a donné l'ordre, sans sommation préalable, un terrible feu de peloton a été tiré dans cette masse de monde. (…) La place était couverte de blessés et de morts. » Interpellé, le ministre de l'intérieur répond avec véhémence : « Nous avons donné des ordres pour assurer la tranquillité publique ; nous les avons donnés avec netteté, fermeté et prudence. » Il livre ensuite son propre récit : « La gendarmerie locale a pu distinguer dans la foule toute la clientèle ordinaire des contrebandiers et des gens sans aveu qu'on peut évaluer à cinq ou six cents, parmi lesquels plus d'un quart d'étrangers. Toute la journée la force publique et l'armée ont eu à subir les injures, provocations et agressions de plus en plus violentes de la foule, et ce n'est qu'à la dernière extrémité et sous l'impression du danger qu'il n'était plus en leur pouvoir de conjurer autrement qu'elles ont dû recourir à la force des armes. »

Il conclut : « Je ne sais si les agents, lassés par les provocations de la foule, se sont laissé entraîner à quelques violences ; mais ce que je sais bien c'est que des hommes dont on n'a pas encore parlé ont été blessés et mis en danger de mort en accomplissant leur devoir. (…) Je tiens à envoyer mes remerciements à tous ces braves gens. » Cette dernière tirade déclenche la colère d'un député, qui le traite à deux reprises d'« assassin », et se voit exclu temporairement de l'Hémicycle.

Revendication de la « modération, [de la] fermeté et [de la] prudence » de l'État, controverse sur la responsabilité de l'escalade violente (manifestants ou gendarmes), rôle des « perturbateurs » (étrangers notamment), soutien inconditionnel aux forces de l'ordre : la scène fait écho aux polémiques qui entourent ces dernières semaines la répression des mouvements contre la réforme des retraites ou contre les mégabassines, comme à Sainte-Soline le 25 mars dernier. Pourtant, le député, bien que socialiste, n'appartient pas à la Nouvelle Union populaire écologique et sociale (Nupes) et le ministre n'est pas M. Gérald Darmanin. Il s'agit respectivement d'Ernest Roche et de Jean Antoine Ernest Constans, qui s'affrontent à la Chambre le 4 mai 1891, trois jours après le massacre de Fourmies, qui a fait neuf morts (dont deux enfants) et trente-cinq blessés par balle parmi les ouvriers réclamant la journée de huit heures et le repos du 1er-Mai (1).

« Citoyens temporairement égarés »

Une telle similarité des échanges étonne car, depuis la fin du XIXe siècle, le maintien de l'ordre a beaucoup évolué. Il ne relève plus de l'armée, alors chargée de ce que l'on appelait les « émotions populaires ». Dès que la police locale ou la gendarmerie étaient en difficulté, on la faisait intervenir, comme le 145e régiment d'infanterie à Fourmies. Des Trois Glorieuses de 1830 à la « semaine sanglante » de 1871 en passant par les journées de juin 1848, l'écrasement des crises sociales ou de régime provoque des milliers de morts et des dizaines de milliers de blessés. Mais cette répression brutale ne constituait guère un problème politique, ni même moral. Pour les élites d'alors, le peuple est par nature différent. Il constitue une masse dépourvue de volonté individuelle, prête à suivre aveuglément quelques meneurs dans l'émeute (2). Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, contrôleur général des finances de Louis XVI, livre un condensé de cet imaginaire social dans sa lettre aux élus des états de Bourgogne du 18 avril 1775. À la suite des pillages et de la destruction d'un moulin par des paysans en colère contre le prix du grain, il écrit : « Il faut avant tout en imposer à la populace et être le plus fort », puis « arrêter les chefs de l'émeute, qu'on peut aisément connaître et découvrir », l'impunité étant considérée comme « un grand encouragement pour les émeutes à venir ».

À la fin du XIXe siècle, cette philosophie n'est plus guère soutenable. La domination politique restait le monopole de la noblesse sous l'Ancien Régime ; elle était réservée aux plus fortunés sous la monarchie censitaire ; l'instauration du suffrage universel masculin en 1848 admet le peuple en politique. Les formes les plus coutumières et personnelles d'autorité se dévaluent avec l'apparition des clubs, des comités électoraux, des ligues (comme celle de l'enseignement), des sociétés de secours mutuel, puis des partis. Ces structures organisent les citoyens et constituent le creuset de discours, de programmes et d'idéologies qui mettent particulièrement l'accent sur la question sociale et la condition des travailleurs (3). La mobilisation politique n'est pas pour rien dans l'avènement de la IIIe République et la consolidation des républicains, à partir de 1877. Même si cela va prendre des années, il devient délicat pour le nouveau régime de garantir d'un côté des libertés d'expression (avec par exemple les lois sur la presse de 1881), mais aussi celles de se réunir et de se syndiquer, tout en faisant tirer par la troupe sur ceux qui les exercent. D'autant que l'armée n'est pas toujours fiable. Lors de la révolte des vignerons de 1907 (qui fait sept morts à Narbonne), le 17e régiment d'infanterie se mutine et fraternise avec les manifestants, mettant en difficulté le gouvernement de Georges Clemenceau.

Le début du XXe siècle est donc marqué par plusieurs projets de loi visant à mettre en place une force spécialisée dans la gestion des protestations, distincte de l'armée. Après de multiples hésitations, celle-ci voit finalement le jour le 22 juillet 1921, avec la création de 111 « pelotons mobiles de gendarmerie ». Rebaptisée « garde républicaine mobile » en 1926, cette force comptait 21 000 hommes en 1939 et avait le quasi-monopole du maintien de l'ordre sur le territoire français, à l'exception de Paris. Elle développe une doctrine, un entraînement et des savoir-faire originaux (4). Il s'agit de ne plus traiter les protestataires comme des ennemis ou des adversaires mais comme des « individus temporairement suggestionnés », pour reprendre la terminologie des années 1930, ou des « citoyens temporairement égarés », pour utiliser celle des années 1970. Ceci suppose d'éviter les contacts directs avec ces derniers, dont l'expérience montre qu'ils dégénèrent toujours en affrontements. On leur préfère des techniques de canalisation, de contention et de dispersion des foules, qui impliquent notamment de laisser toujours une porte de sortie. La discipline collective, le barrage des corps, la crosse du fusil et la matraque constituent dans un premier temps les seuls outils disponibles. Ils sont complétés après la seconde guerre mondiale par des technologies permettant de tenir les manifestants à distance, comme le gaz lacrymogène — inenvisageable auparavant en France en raison du souvenir des tranchées —, les grenades offensives et les lances à incendie. En 1944, la police se dote à son tour d'unités spécifiques, les compagnies républicaines de sécurité (CRS), qui comptent près de 13 000 hommes en 1947 et reproduisent l'organisation, la doctrine et l'équipement de la gendarmerie mobile.

Les deux forces s'engagent dans les rugueux conflits sociaux de la période (comme les grèves des mineurs de 1947-1948), au prix d'un grand nombre de blessés de part et d'autre. Mais on remarque une diminution significative des décès parmi les protestataires, notamment en province. Paris reste une exception, le préfet disposant de ses propres unités, prises parmi les effectifs de la police municipale (5). Elles ne disposent ni de l'entraînement ni du savoir-faire de leurs collègues et n'hésitent pas à déchaîner leur brutalité et à « régler leurs comptes » avec les Algériens (sept victimes lors de la manifestation du 14 juillet 1953 et plusieurs dizaines le 17 octobre 1961 (6)) ou les communistes (dix morts au métro Charonne à Paris, le 8 février 1962).

La crise de mai-juin 1968, par sa virulence et son ampleur, met à rude épreuve le ministère de l'intérieur. Contrairement au discours officiel, cinq morts sont à déplorer (trois étudiants à Paris, à Flins et dans le Calvados, et deux ouvriers à Sochaux) mais, surtout, les forces de l'ordre sont apparues dépassées en nombre et en équipement. En conséquence, vingt mille policiers sont recrutés entre 1968 et 1974, et CRS comme gendarmes mobiles reçoivent de nouvelles protections corporelles (casques, visières, jambières, boucliers, masques à gaz) et du matériel offensif et défensif, comme les fourgons-pompe, les véhicules blindés à roues de la gendarmerie (VBRG) et des grenades plus diversifiées. En avril 1969 ouvre également à Saint-Astier, en Dordogne, le Centre de perfectionnement de la gendarmerie mobile (CPGM), destiné à la formation continue des personnels. En 1977, une véritable ville — Cigaville — avec des bâtiments, des rues et des places y est construite, permettant de s'entraîner à toutes les situations du maintien de l'ordre, y compris les plus dures (barricades, cocktails Molotov). Les CRS en profitent aussi, avant de se doter de leurs propres centres. Ces entraînements visent à inculquer aux personnels une discipline collective et une maîtrise d'eux-mêmes permettant de gérer la peur et le stress inhérents à leurs missions.

Une nouvelle actualisation significative de l'équipement s'opère à la suite de la manifestation des marins-pêcheurs de Rennes du 4 février 1994, considérée par les professionnels comme l'une des plus violentes de la période contemporaine (usage de fusées de détresse et de harpons, blessures « de guerre » chez des policiers et gendarmes, incendie du parlement de Bretagne). Des grilles sont apposées sur les véhicules, et surtout apparaissent les tenues de « Robocop », comme les nomment les intéressés : uniformes ignifugés, manchettes, coudières, épaulières et casque en Kevlar, protège-nuque, etc. (7).

La « violence contenue » revendiquée par les forces de l'ordre laisse dans son sillage un vaste cortège de blessés et de mutilés. Mais les victimes mortelles sont rares après 1968, au point que l'on se souvient encore des noms de Malik Oussekine, tué par des voltigeurs motocyclistes lors du mouvement étudiant contre la loi Devaquet, en décembre 1986, ou de Rémi Fraisse, qui décède des suites de la déflagration d'une grenade à Sivens, en octobre 2014 (8). Les responsables policiers en sont même venus à vanter un « modèle français » de maintien de l'ordre. Ils regardent avec circonspection les difficultés des polices étrangères pour faire face au mouvement altermondialiste (comme à Seattle en 1999, à Göteborg et à Gênes en 2001) et restent à l'écart des réflexions qui se mènent au niveau européen.

Pourtant, quelque chose change graduellement à partir de la fin des années 1990. Les principaux responsables gouvernementaux considèrent que la conflictualité sociale a diminué et voient dans les compagnies de CRS et les escadrons de gendarmerie mobile (EGM) un réservoir de personnels pouvant être aisément redéployés dans la lutte contre l'« insécurité », dont ils ont fait une priorité. Amorcé sous le gouvernement de M. Lionel Jospin (1997-2002), ce mouvement s'accélère par la suite. Le programme d'action annexé à la loi d'orientation et de programmation pour la sécurité intérieure du 29 août 2002 indique ainsi : « Les forces mobiles ont été créées dans un contexte historique particulier marqué par des périodes d'émeutes et de troubles collectifs. La démocratie apaisée que notre pays connaît depuis de nombreuses années permet aujourd'hui un changement radical de la doctrine d'emploi des forces mobiles. Cette politique systématique rompant avec la priorité de l'ordre public permet de mettre les trente mille hommes qui constituent aujourd'hui les forces mobiles au service de la sécurité quotidienne. »

Le nombre de policiers et de gendarmes disponibles pour le maintien de l'ordre diminue. Ils ne sont plus que 25 786 en 2015, soit une baisse de presque 15 % par rapport à 2002, alors même que leurs missions se sont diversifiées. La saturation qui en découle pour ces unités s'est traduite par la montée en puissance des compagnies d'intervention (CDI). Existant localement sous des formats divers, elles sont composées de policiers de sécurité publique qui remplissent surtout des missions de sécurisation dans la lutte contre les « violences urbaines » et les trafics de stupéfiants. Reconnaissables à leurs casques barrés de deux bandes bleu roi (qui les distinguent des jaunes des CRS), elles sont devenues depuis la fin des années 2000 un élément central du maintien de l'ordre. Outre le renfort numérique qu'elles apportent, elles sont plus autonomes dans leur commandement et leur action que les CRS et les EGM, considérés comme trop statiques. Elles apparaissent également mieux ajustées que ces derniers à la judiciarisation du maintien de l'ordre.

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Mathieu Clément. – « Foule à Paris », 2021
© Mathieu Clément

L'arrestation ne faisait partie qu'à la marge de la gestion des manifestations (par exemple après leur dissolution). Le général Bertrand Cavallier, ancien responsable du CPGM, explique que la doctrine traditionnelle consiste d'abord à « absorber une violence qui est généralement une violence passagère. C'est le concept de désordre acceptable. Quel est l'effet final recherché ? Va-t-on s'intéresser à quelques dégradations ou va-t-on comprendre qu'après cette montée de fièvre il y a un retour à la normale et que l'on va pouvoir discuter et essayer de répondre aux attentes des manifestants, même si ces manifestants ont été violents (9) ? ». À partir du début des années 2000, le tournant punitif des gouvernements qui se succèdent se fait sentir sur ce terrain également. Il s'agit d'en finir avec l'« impunité » et donc d'identifier et d'arrêter des fauteurs de troubles. Les CRS et les gendarmes vidéastes font leur apparition, et plus récemment les « produits marquants codés », laissant des traces sur la peau et les vêtements. Des techniques qui permettent d'intervenir a posteriori. Les procureurs n'hésitent plus à autoriser les arrestations préventives et à organiser leurs services pour agir dans l'urgence. Surtout, on assiste à une actualisation tactique qui sépare les manifestants conformes de ceux qui se livrent à des actes illégaux (les « casseurs »), qu'il faut maintenant aller chercher au cœur même des cortèges. Cette distinction se retrouve clairement dans le schéma national du maintien de l'ordre adopté en 2021. Il formule deux objectifs « distincts ou complémentaires » de la gestion de la manifestation, « la dispersion sans délai des groupes hostiles et des interpellations rapides et ciblées facilitées par la mise en œuvre de dispositifs tactiques permettant d'aller au contact des individus identifiés ». Bien que les EGM et les CRS disposent d'unités capables d'assurer ces tâches, elles sont en pratique assumées par les CDI et surtout par les brigades anticriminalité (BAC) et les controversées brigades de répression de l'action violente motorisées (BRAV-M), créées en 2019.

Malgré tous les efforts rhétoriques pour expliquer la complémentarité de ces tactiques, elles sont partiellement contradictoires. « Impacter » ou « percuter » des « groupes hostiles » a souvent pour effet de stopper les cortèges et de porter la violence en leur sein. Les charges comme les gaz lacrymogènes ne sont pas sélectifs. Ils touchent d'abord les moins aguerris, provoquent l'incompréhension et attisent la colère. De plus, le risque physique d'intervenir dans une foule, en petit nombre de surcroît, augmente la probabilité d'user de la force. De multiples vidéos postées sur les réseaux sociaux attestent le désordre causé par l'intervention de ces polices urbaines, quand elles ne montrent pas les conflits qui éclatent avec les gendarmes mobiles ou les CRS, dont elles désorganisent les dispositifs. Facilement mises en difficulté, elles ont également plus volontiers recours aux grenades de désencerclement et aux lanceurs de balles de défense (comme le LBD 40).

Apparue au milieu des années 1990 (sous le nom commercial de Flash-Ball), cette arme « à létalité réduite » était destinée à l'origine à des unités spécialisées dans la neutralisation des forcenés ou des preneurs d'otages. Elle s'est graduellement diffusée au sein des BAC et des CDI puis s'est généralisée après l'embrasement des banlieues françaises en 2005. Ce sont d'abord ces policiers qui en systématisent l'usage dans les manifestations. Lors de la crise des « gilets jaunes », sur les 13 460 tirs de LBD recensés entre le 17 novembre 2018 et le 5 février 2019, 85 % étaient imputables aux polices urbaines, contre 15 % aux CRS. Sur la même période, la gendarmerie rapportait un millier de tirs (10). Si la controverse sur les ravages qu'elles ont provoqués a fait diminuer l'usage de ces armes, il ne s'en est pas moins banalisé. Le rapport annuel de l'inspection générale de la police nationale (IGPN) relève ainsi 6 684 tirs en 2021, contre 1 514 en 2012, soit quatre fois plus en neuf ans.

Enfin, le rôle dévolu aux polices urbaines dans les manifestations modifie les représentations des manifestants. Portés par leur socialisation professionnelle à se penser comme des « chasseurs », leurs agents ne sont guère enclins à considérer ces derniers comme des « citoyens momentanément égarés ». Ils les voient plutôt comme des délinquants (ou comme leurs complices) et n'hésitent pas à les traiter comme tels : humiliations et brimades diverses, arrestations musclées, etc.

Tous ces facteurs concourent à expliquer la « brutalisation du maintien de l'ordre (11) » repérable depuis le milieu des années 2010, dont le mouvement des « gilets jaunes » a pour l'heure constitué l'acmé. Toutefois, celle-ci reste inintelligible si on ne la relie pas à la délégitimation de la manifestation comme mode d'action politique.

La force intimide, la justice neutralise

Le maintien de l'ordre ne se limite pas à un face-à-face entre policiers et protestataires. Il s'agit d'une relation à trois qui implique également les gouvernants. Tout au long du XXe siècle s'est graduellement développé un ordre manifestant. Celui-ci implique une adaptation des forces de l'ordre, mais aussi des citoyens, lesquels abandonnent progressivement le registre de l'émeute pour des répertoires plus codifiés comme la manifestation. La mise en place de cortèges, de banderoles, de revendications, de mots et de services d'ordre procède de cet apprentissage protestataire (12). Toutefois, il n'est possible que parce qu'il permet la négociation politique, c'est-à-dire qu'il est reconnu comme une expression démocratique du dissensus. Le commissaire Jean-Marc Berlioz, directeur adjoint de la sécurité publique à la préfecture de police de Paris, observait en 1997 : « Désormais tout citoyen est appelé un jour à devenir manifestant, et je partage l'analyse qui veut que la manifestation soit un correctif à l'élection (13). »

Une telle formule semble désormais heurter les représentations des élites gouvernantes, qui n'ont pas la même expérience de l'action collective que leurs aînées. L'élection, même fragile, dont ils tirent leur position est perçue comme la seule source de légitimité et pratiquement comme un chèque en blanc. Le refus du dialogue avec les centrales syndicales (pourtant représentatives, elles aussi) et les groupes mobilisés (comme les personnels soignants) tout comme l'utilisation jusqu'à la dernière extrémité des outils légaux pour museler le Parlement (« 49-3 », limitation du temps des débats, sanctions disciplinaires) attestent une conception verticale du pouvoir qui fait peu cas de la contestation.

Dans les discours, les expressions comme « foules », « meutes » ou « hordes » réactivent une vision de la populace ignare et brutale que n'aurait pas reniée Turgot. On applique d'ailleurs une politique semblable dans ses principes : exhiber la force pour intimider et utiliser la justice pour neutraliser, même temporairement. Charges intempestives, usage abusif des gaz, des LBD ou des « nasses », zones interdites, gardes à vue préventives, amendes, fichages policiers et déferrements en masse se combinent ainsi pour rendre les manifestations plus inhospitalières, incertaines et insécurisantes.

Or la brutalisation du maintien de l'ordre et celle du jeu politique sont les deux faces d'un même processus. Le refus de la négociation et le déni de l'expression manifestante provoquent une colère qui augmente le niveau de violence. La focalisation des médias sur la moindre poubelle brûlée ou sur la dégradation de mobilier urbain renforce cette dynamique. Dans les luttes « pour l'imposition du sens de l'événement (14) », le choix de rapporter les actes les plus spectaculaires plutôt que les revendications exprimées — souvent avec beaucoup d'inventivité — confortent les premiers. Ils trouvent en effet un écho inversement proportionnel à leur poids dans la mobilisation. En retour, ils provoquent un durcissement de l'action policière et facilitent la disqualification de mouvements pourtant massifs, réduits aux menées de ceux que les ministres de l'intérieur nomment commodément les « black blocs », les « anarcho-autonomes » ou l'« ultragauche ».

On perçoit les bénéfices politiques immédiats de cette dislocation de l'ordre manifestant. Ses effets demeurent plus douteux à moyen terme. Elle produit d'abord une adaptation des protestataires. Ils apprennent à mieux se protéger (équipements contre les gaz, apparition des street medics, etc.), à rendre visibles les violences policières (en les filmant) et adoptent des stratégies favorisant la confrontation, la mobilité et l'imprévisibilité plutôt que l'expression de mots d'ordre. Ces évolutions pourraient ensuite déboucher sur un retour à des modes d'action plus radicaux, comme l'émeute, le sabotage, l'incendie, le blocage ou l'occupation.

Des élites ignorantes

Mais, surtout, le gouvernement d'un pays suppose un consentement minimal de ceux sur lesquels il s'exerce, c'est-à-dire des contreparties. Juste après le drame de Fourmies, le député Alexandre Millerand — qui deviendra plusieurs fois ministre, puis président de la République (1920-1924) — interpelle le ministre Constans : « Si la République a été fondée, si elle existe, si elle a été maintenue à travers toutes les crises, vous ne le devez, vous le savez bien d'ailleurs, qu'à ces millions de travailleurs de l'usine, des champs, de la mine qui attendent aujourd'hui de la République les réformes sociales qu'elle leur doit. » Son discours résonne étrangement avec celui de M. Gérard Mardiné, alors secrétaire général de la Confédération française de l'encadrement — Confédération générale des cadres (CFE-CGC), qui s'adressait le 15 février 2023 à la commission des affaires sociales du Sénat : « Votre politique, vous la menez pour qui ? Pour les salariés français ou pour les fonds de pension anglo-saxons ? »

Tous deux nous rappellent que l'instauration et la consolidation d'un État démocratique en France sont inséparables des protections qu'il a dû apporter à la condition salariale, c'est-à-dire des compromis trouvés entre le travail et le capital (15). Le déséquilibre manifeste qui s'est instauré en faveur des plus privilégiés — et que l'on n'essaie même plus de dissimuler — sape ce contrat social implicite. Les élites politiques qui en sont responsables démontent ainsi pierre à pierre une construction dont elles sont les héritières ignorantes. La démocratie représentative ne fonctionne pas comme un dialogue courtois et feutré entre les actionnaires d'un conseil d'administration ou les membres des comités directeurs d'institutions financières internationales. Elle vit et s'exprime aussi par les éclats de mobilisations collectives qui actualisent périodiquement les rapports de forces entre représentants et représentés. En rappelant publiquement l'intérêt du plus grand nombre, elles contribuent à la légitimité de la délégation politique, bien mieux que les consignes de politique pénale, les circulaires sur la composition des grenades lacrymogènes ou les doctrines d'emploi des LBD.

Voir en ligne : /2023/05/BONELLI/65761

(1) Ces citations sont extraites du Journal officiel de la République française du 5 mai 1891, https://gallica.bnf.fr

(2) Déborah Cohen, La Nature du peuple. Les formes de l'imaginaire social (XVIIIe – XXIe siècles), Champ Vallon, Ceyzérieu, 2010.

(3) Christophe Charle, Histoire sociale de la France au XIXe siècle, Seuil, Paris, 1991.

(4) Patrick Bruneteaux, Maintenir l'ordre. Les transformations de la violence d'État en régime démocratique, Presses de Sciences Po, Paris, 1996.

(5) La police parisienne n'est intégrée dans la police nationale qu'en 1966.

(6) Emmanuel Blanchard, La Police parisienne et les Algériens (1944-1962), Nouveau Monde, Paris, 2011.

(7) David Dufresne, Maintien de l'ordre. Enquête, Hachette, Paris, 2007.

(8) Il faut y ajouter Vital Michalon, victime d'une grenade lors des mobilisations contre l'installation d'une centrale nucléaire à Creys-Malville, en juillet 1977, et Zineb Redouane, tuée par un tir de lacrymogène dans son appartement en décembre 2018 à Marseille.

(9) « Maintien de l'ordre : du terrain au politique », conférence du 16 octobre 2020, vidéo disponible sur YouTube.

(11) Olivier Fillieule et Fabien Jobard, Politiques du désordre. La police des manifestations en France, Seuil, 2020.

(12) Charles Tilly, La France conteste. De 1600 à nos jours, Fayard, Paris, 1986.

(13) « Table ronde : à propos des matériels de maintien de l'ordre », Les Cahiers de la sécurité intérieure, n° 27, Paris, 1997.

(14) Patrick Champagne, Faire l'opinion, Éditions de Minuit, Paris, 1990.

(15) Robert Castel, Les Métamorphoses de la question sociale. Une chronique du salariat, Gallimard, Paris, 1999.

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